This historical account is included as an accompaniment my 'Burma' scenario, to assist the player to understand this forgotten military jungle conflict. I have tried to encapsulate the main events that occurred in Burma and eastern India during these four years of war. My apologize if anything has been overlooked or misinterpreted.
The following publications are acknowledged and thanked for the facts, original images and maps used in this short history: All the monochrome maps have been colour enhanced. Unfortunately, no photographs of Japanese commanders involved in Burma were found.
'The Second Great War' - A nine volume series 1946 edition.
"Defeat into Victory' by Field-Marshal Sir William Slim - Published 1956.
'The World at Arms' - Reader's Digest 1989 edition.
They make fascinating reading (especially the personal and detailed story of the field commander Field-Marshal Sir William Slim) and are great sources of reference.
I hope that you enjoy this step back into the past.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
After the First World War ended in 1918, nationalist unrest began to undermine British control of India and Burma. Politically, Burma separated from India in 1937 but remained the outer defense of India.
When the European war began in 1939, most of the Indian army was sent to north Africa. Only one training division was left in India.
Burma had a small British led Burmese military force and a few obsolete aircraft. They were bolstered in late 1941 by an Indian division.
An overland invasion of Burma through jungle covered hills of Siam and Indochina was deemed unlikely but several airfields were built along the border with Siam.
Emphasis for regional defense was placed on the British naval fortress of Singapore at the tip of Malaya.
Except for some of the Burmese Katchin and Chin hill tribesmen, little support was given by the local populations of Burma and Malaya to the Allied forces in the defense of their countries.
JAPANESE EMPIRE
Through treaty and conquest, the military controlled Japanese Empire had been expanding throughout the Far East and Pacific regions since World War One.
On the pretext of 'incidents', Japan had invaded Manchuria in 1931 and waged a barbaric war against the Chinese people from 1937. By 1941, Nationalist Chinese forces had been squeezed into the western half of China. Their only supply routes were through French Indochina, British Hong Kong and northern Burma, along the arduous 'Burma Road'.
Western nations, especially the United States condemned Japanese action and tried every diplomatic means to stop the war. But even after Japanese forces attacked American and British citizens and property in China, the West did not act.
In 1939 Japan blockaded the Chinese coast and annexed two islands in the South China Sea.
After war broke out in Europe in September 1939, the West tried to obtain Japan's neutrality but she wanted a free hand to deal with China and control of the region under a 'Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere'.
In May 1940 the U.S. Fleet moved to Hawaii to deter further Japanese expansionism into the East Indies.
Under
pressure from the victorious Germans, France's Vichy
government agreed to the occupation of Indochina by Japanese
troops in August 1940.
The next month, Japan joined the Axis Tripartite pact of Germany and Italy. Confident that Germany would come to her aid, Japan pursued her southward advance building airfields in Indochina, secretly moving hundreds of bombers and thousands of troops into the area. Almost two million conscripts were called up for military service.
By July 1941
Japanese forces occupied all of Indochina and completed a
strategic offensive horseshoe around the American protected
Philippines.
In response, U.S. President Roosevelt quickly froze all Japanese assets in the United States and fuel oil exports to Japan were stopped. Britain and the Dutch followed suit. Japan imported 80% of all it's oil from the United States and only had enough stockpiled for one year of war.
Japan must get more oil to conquer and conquer to get more oil.
Whilst Japan's formal declaration of war to the United States had been delayed from being presented, Japanese carrier borne bombers and torpedo bombers launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet in Hawaii at 7h49am 7 December 1941.
Japanese amphibious forces overran the Pacific
islands of Guam and Wake and invaded Siam (Thailand) and
Malaya. Siam gave token resistance and then joined the
Japanese. Air attacks were made on Shanghai, Manila, Hong
Kong and Singapore.
By mid
February 1942, 'impregnable' Singapore had surrendered
together with 70,000 troops. Malaya was in Japanese hands,
the Philippines were under heavy attack and Burma was being
invaded from Siam.
Japanese Flanking Tactics
British troops and transport
were not trained for jungle warfare and remained on the few
Burmese roads and tracks, creating defensive positions to
hold back the Japanese invasion. The Japanese would attack
these defensive positions but also sent forces through the
jungle in a flanking movement. When they emerged on the road
behind the British position, they created a 'roadblock'
cutting off the British retreat. The British would then
weaken their defense to clear the roadblock giving the
Japanese the opportunity to launch an overwhelming frontal
attack. The British used similar tactics on the Japanese
during the reconquest of Burma two years later.
ALLIED RETREAT
The Chinese V Army under American Lt General Stilwell moved from Yunnan province in western China to central Burma. They fought hard to prevent flanking movements of Japanese forces from taking the eastern half of Burma and cutting the vital Burma Road into China. But they eventually retreated back into China and northern India.
The Japanese launched hundreds of bombers and
fighters from Siam against Burmese cities and the Allied
forces. The few American Volunteer Force 'flying tiger' P40
Tomahawk fighters and RAF Hurricanes that tried to protect
Rangoon were withdrawn to protect the remaining air-supply
route from northern India to China and to protect India
itself.
Overwhelmed British and Indian divisions fought a rear-guard retreat from Moulmein through the central plains of Burma, up the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers and across jungle, malaria infested hills. The remnants of their ragged army eventually escaping into the Assam hills of eastern India having lost over 13,000 killed and missing and most of their material.
They were closely followed by Japanese forces. Japanese Zero fighters and bombers ruled the skies of Burma until the summer monsoon burst in full fury and stopped everything in its tracks on 12 May 1942.
Neither side
was to see each other for a few months. For the British it
was a welcome respite. Apart from the exhausted remnants of
the Burma Army, there was only a training division left to
defend India.
Over the next few months civil unrest and politically motivated 'anti-British' disruptive disobedience increased throughout India. Despite this, the recruitment and jungle training of a new Indian fighting force took effect.
Meanwhile the Japanese forces under Lt General Mazakuza Kawabe consolidated their positions. One division faced the Chinese in mountainous north-east Burma. Two other divisions faced the British along the mass of jumbled hills of the western border with India's Assam and Bengal. A fourth division fortified the tunnels and hills of south-western Burma along the Arakan coastline.
Japan had achieved it's primary goal of closing the last supply route to it's hated enemy, China. Now the main Japanese thrust on the nationalist Chinese came from their bases in eastern China.
To break the Japanese blockade, Allied trucks and river craft ferried munitions and supplies 800 miles from Calcutta to Dimapur, then on rickety trains (there were no roads) to Ledo in the remote north-east corner of India.. These goods were then airlifted by American C47 aircraft over the 'Hump' of the 6,000m (20,000ft) mountains of the Himalayas to the nationalist Chinese base at Chungking.
In mid-December 1942, the new British 'East Army' assembled south of Cox's Bazaar on the India-Burma coastal border. They attempted to retake the island air base of Akyab on the north-east Burmese Arakan coast. Initial successes were later out-flanked by reinforced Japanese forces scaling the 'impenetrable' jungle clad Mayu coastal escarpment. By the time the summer monsoon started again in mid-May 1943, the British had retreated to almost the same position they had started the campaign. Not only had they lost 2500 killed, wounded and missing but malaria had caused twice as many casualties.
At the same time, British Brigadier Wingate's Chindit guerrilla forces attempted to infiltrate and disrupt Japanese positions in northern Burma. Despite high casualties (over a 1000 men) and little military success, the raid was a great morale booster and hailed as a triumph of British jungle fighting skills. At last, the seemingly invincible Japanese, had been beaten at their own game.
Once again, the disruptive monsoon rains allowed the British to train and build up their forces, including some West African reinforcements.
In August 1943, Britain and the United States formed a new
South-East Asia Allied Command (SEAAC) under Admiral Louis
Mountbatten based in Delhi. This new command controlled all
Allied forces in Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, Dutch East Indies,
Siam and Indochina.
General Slim, who had led Allied forces out of Burma, was now in command of the newly formed XIV Army to protect India's eastern border and regain Burma.
In Burma,
Japanese forces had been reinforced by the arrival of four
veteran divisions from Java, Malaya and Siam. The Japanese
also had a new formation of the 'Indian National Army' under
Subhas Bose, leader of the Indian Independence
League.
In December 1943, three divisions of the XIV Army moved down the Mayu peninsula towards Akyab. Rough roads, air strips and supply lines were hacked through the jungle valleys and hills but most of the supplies were dropped by air. Allied Spitfire and Hurricane fighters decimated the dominance of the Japanese Zero and Tojo fighters but the land forces met fierce resistance from entrenched positions around the old railway tunnels that passed through the Mayu mountain range.
On 4 February 1944, a surprise Japanese counter-attack code named 'Ha-go', flanked the Allied rear and threatened to encircle them. So confident were the Japanese that they would destroy the Allied divisions and march into India within 10 days that the Japanese radio broadcaster 'Tokyo Rose' announced each day's 'success' before it had happened.
The Allied supply route through Ngakyedauk Pass (called 'Okeydoke' by the British), was taken and the main supply depot, the 'Admin Box', was surrounded. The field hospital in the 'Box' was overrun by Japanese who bayoneted most of the wounded and shot the doctors. However, the encircling Japanese attack was thwarted by the destruction of their supply columns and the strong Allied resistance that continued to be supported from the air. By the time the monsoon was about to start in May, almost all of the 7000 strong counter-attacking Japanese force had been killed, whilst the Allied army controlled the small harbour of Maungdaw, the tunnels and the high ground to the west of Buthidaung village. The Allied victory was the turning point of the Burma campaign.
With the approaching monsoon and news of a Japanese build-up along the north-west border, most of the Allied forces and transport aircraft were then withdrawn to Assam. A minimum of troops was left to defend the new Arakan gains.
Whilst the British attacked the south-west corner
of Burma, the American Lt General 'Vinegar Joe' J.W.
Stilwell's goal was to build a new supply road from Ledo to
the old Burma Road and China. But the Japanese 18th Division
held the northern corner of Burma through which the road was
to be built. Beginning in October 1943, three American
trained Chinese divisions, a Chinese light tank group and a
veteran American 'long range penetration' regiment called
'Merrill's Marauders' were led into Burma from Ledo.
American engineers with an army of local labourers built the
road behind them. By 27 December, 103 miles of road had been
built across the jungle hills.
In support
of this advance, a British force of Wingate's
Chindits* would cut the opposing Japanese division's
lines of communication. Starting 8 February, the first 3000
Chindits marched into Burma. They were followed on 5 March
by the remainder of this force being flown. For the first
time, each Dakota aircraft pulled two gliders full of troops
and equipment from Hailakandi in Assam to three jungle
clearings (Chowringhee, Aberdeen, Broadway), south of the
main Japanese entrenchments. 
Despite the original loss of half the gliders, 600 Dakota
sorties flew in nine thousand Chindit's, 1100 mules and
equipment. Unfortunately their eccentric leader, Maj. Gen.
Wingate, was killed when his aircraft crashed at
Imphal.
*Chindit comes from the Burmese word 'chinthé', a mythical lion that guards Burmese temples.
Using similar flanking jungle movements favoured by the Japanese, the Chinese-American forces had fought their way to Shaduzup and taken Myitkyina airfield by May. The Chindits held most of the area south of the Japanese, beating back Japanese counter-attacks and cutting off most rail and road reinforcement and supply. However, now under direct command of Gen Stilwell, the lightly armed Chindits were wasted assaulting heavily defended Mogaung. The exhausted and diseased troops were only withdrawn back to India in August after the intervention of Lord Mountbatten. The Chindits had lost over 5000 men killed, wounded or missing. Merrill's Marauders lost over 1500 men in exhaustive jungle fighting.
The Japanese held out in Myitkyina town throughout the rain-soaked, mud-clogged, summer long Allied siege. The town finally fell 3 August. The "Ledo Road' builders and 'Hump' supply aircraft now moved to this forward base.
When the Allied forces retreated through the
Assam hills of eastern India in May 1942, there was only a
narrow road linking Imphal (the Manipur district's main
town) with Kohima and the railway at Dimapur. The remnants
of the retreating 17th Indian Division dug in around the
jungle hills south of Imphal but the Japanese had stopped
their pursuit to reorganize. Although there were occasional
savage skirmishes, British forces slowly improved the
defenses and facilities of the region. Roads were improved
to take trucks and tanks, whilst airfields, hospitals and
workshops were built. By early 1944, three British divisions
defended the area. But now the Japanese were ready to spring
their attack.
Launched 4
February, a diversionary thrust (Operation 'Ha-go' ) was made on the
British forces in Arakan. 
Then on the night of 7
March, 100,000 troops, the Japanese 15th and 33rd Divisions
with armour and artillery, crossed the 450m wide Chindwin
River by pontoon bridge to assault Imphal. Their commander,
Lt Gen. Renya Mutaguchi had little regard for the British
forces and was extremely confidant that he would break
through to India. With the coming monsoon and carrying only
three or four weeks supplies, his troops had to capture of
Imphal. Operation 'U-go' had begun. It was a fight to
the death for both sides.
The British forces were pushed back and by 29 March, Imphal was surrounded by the main Japanese attack. But in Arakan, Operation 'Ha-go' had failed. British forces had successfully held the Japanese and consolidated their advance. Now two of the Arakan British divisions, were flown to Imphal with supplies to reinforce the defenders.
While the battle at Imphal raged, the Japanese 31st Division crossed the Chindwin further north, overwhelming British forces hastily dug in at Kharasom and surrounding Jessami. Only 1500 British troops defended the hills around Kohima village and it's strategic road junction to Dimapur. The Japanese had over 12,000. Despite vicious hand-to-hand fighting and furious Banzai charges, the Japanese attacks were held just long enough for British-Indian reinforcements to smash their way from Dimapur through Zubza to Kohima. The battle raged for weeks after the monsoon broke on April 27. Despite dwindling stock of supplies, the Japanese fought tenaciously to the last man for every meter. Imphal was not captured and the battered remnants of the Japanese were forced to retreat back to Burma on July 8. The Japanese had suffered an enormous 60,000 casualties. British-Indian forces had lost over 17,000 killed and wounded. Many of the dead lie beneath a monument at Kohima, whose epitaph reads: '
When you go home, tell them of us, and say: For your tomorrow, we gave our today.'
Imphal and India had been saved. Now General Slim had the springboard for the reconquest of Burma.
As it had saved the British in 1942, the monsoon deluge saved the Japanese fleeing Imphal during July 1944. However, it also delayed the British advance into Burma until late October. By that time, most of the Allied air support had been diverted to other campaigns, leaving Gen Slim to tackle the Japanese mainly with ground forces supported by supply drops. His opponent, Lt Gen Kawabe had been replaced as commander of the Japanese Army in Burma by an outstanding tactician, Lt Gen Kimura. He had pulled most of his forces back over the wide Irrawaddy River and entrenched them in the cliffs overlooking the river. With only a few months before the next monsoon, General Slim devised a daring plan to outmaneuver his opponent.
North Burma - On the northern front, the Chinese-American forces and the building of the Ledo Road pushed south from Myitkyina, taking Bhamo on 15 December. The British 36th Division then joined XIV Army command and advanced west to meet the 19th Division and south through bitter Japanese resistance towards Mandalay. 1st Chinese Army moved slowly but finally took Lashio on the old Burma Road by 5 March 1945. The main supply route to China was back in Allied control. Whilst the new US Battle group 'Mars Task Force' mopped up Japanese strong points along the road, the bulk of Chinese forces were withdrawn to China.
Imphal - At the end of October 1944, the two Corps of General Slim's British Fourteenth Army began a four pronged advance on Burma. XXXIII Corps with four divisions were to advance southeast towards Mandalay to establish feint bridgeheads. IV Corps with three divisions would advance south towards central Burma.
XXXIII Corps' 19th Division pushed 400 miles northeast to capture Indaw and meet the 36th Division, before advancing south to Shwebo.
XXXIII Corps' 2nd and 20th Divisions tackled the Japanese hillside entrenchments to the south-east with tanks, before taking Kalewa on the Chindwin River on 2 December. Here the longest pontoon bridge (1000ft) ever constructed was built. Once across the river and onto central Burma's open sandy plain, 2nd Division pushed towards Mandalay, taking Yeu and helping the 19th Division capture Shwebo by 7 January 1945. The 20th Indian Division meanwhile moved south towards Monywa, then in a pincer movement, east to Myinmu opposite Mandalay to establish phoney bridgeheads. Thinking that Mandalay was the main British target, Japanese forces were rushed from northern and southern Burma to oppose these crossings.
Akyab and Arakan - As the Fourteenth Army advanced from Imphal, a series of amphibious assaults began along the Arakan coastline. The British 25 Division, 81st and 82nd West African Division, holding the British positions at Maungdaw and Buthidaung used small boats and jungle marches to outflank the Japanese. Akyab was captured on January 3.
On January 21, an amphibious assault from Chittagong was successfully carried out by 26th Indian Division on Ramree Island and then by Royal Marines on Cheduba Island on January 26.
Other landings involving commandos, tanks, artillery and naval forces took Kangaw, Ru-Ywa and Letpan along the Arakan coast. By March 13, Japanese forces were in full retreat southwards.
CENTRAL BURMA - As the Arakan campaign was slowly pushing the Japanese back, the fourth flanking prong of the British XIV Army, IV Corps' motorized 5, 7 and 17 Divisions, had been advancing south from Imphal undetected along the Myittha River towards the ancient pagoda city of Pagan. Here the Irrawaddy River was two miles wide overlooked by high cliffs. During the night of February 14, Gurkha troops of 7 Division managed to cross under heavy machine gun fire and subdue the defending Japanese and Indian National Army forces. Pagan was captured intact as it had not been occupied by the Japanese. 7 Division now advanced towards Meiktila whilst 5 Division turned north-east to face fierce Japanese resistance among the oil fields at Chauk.
On February 19, the armour of 17 Division made another river crossing further east and dashed towards Meiktila, capturing a nearby airstrip. C47 cargo aircraft poured in anti-aircraft and infantry to establish a forward base. Finally overcoming fanatical Japanese resistance, Meiktila was captured February 28.
Once the Rangoon-Mandalay railway line was cut, the isolated Japanese forces between Meiktila and Mandalay were squeeze between the British forces and eventually liquidated by 7 April.
With the start of the monsoon only weeks away, General Slim now ordered the motorized armour of 5 and 17 Divisions to race 340 miles towards Rangoon. The speed of the narrow British salient through Japanese held lower Burma surprised everyone. One by one Japanese held towns and villages were taken until Pegu was reached. This was the last escape route from Rangoon. Japanese forces tried to make a stand but the town fell on April 30.
Rangoon - As Pegu was being assaulted, Indian paratroopers landed on the Japanese held naval guns at Elephant Point, overlooking the waterways to Rangoon. The few Japanese defenders were overrun.
Now, the 26 Division force
that had sailed 400 miles from Arakan, waded through the
slime of the paddy fields and blinding rain to enter Rangoon
itself. The city was an empty shell as the Japanese had left
days earlier and looters had destroyed much of the city.
About a 1000 Allied prisoners of war were found in the
Rangoon area. Rangoon was back in British hands on May 3,
ten days before the main monsoon started.
Prome was captured by 20 Division and Burma National Army on May 2. The Japanese trained Burmese troops had decided to join the British three days earlier. British forces finally met each other at Hlegu, northeast of Rangoon on May 6. Pockets of fanatical Japanese resistance continued throughout Burma, especially in July when heavy fighting broke out as Japanese troops tried to escape across the Sittang river, north-east of Pegu.
The Japanese had lost 97, 000 killed and 250, 000 casualties with very few prisoners taken during the Burma conflict.
With Burma now in British hands, preparations were being made to assault Malaya and Singapore in early September. Fortunately, Japan officially surrendered on August 14, 1945. Much to the anger of some die-hard Japanese generals, the war in the east was over.
|
|
 |
|
|
|
 |
|
The following web sites have excellent detailed information on the Second World War in South-East Asia:
a. Dutch East Indies & Japanese Rikusentai (Marine) - http://www.geocities.com/dutcheastindies
b. Burma & Gen. Slim - http://www.cbiinfo.com/
c. XIV Army & Burma campaign - http://www.rothwell.force9.co.uk/burmaweb
HISTORY FILE - BURMA SOUTH EAST ASIA 1941-1945
A Fantastic Worlds game scenario for Civilization II*
Created by Len Morison - October 2002 - email: ancestry@dunmor.freeserve.co.uk
*Copyright (c) 1995 by Micro Prose Software
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|